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So also a limitation was Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 15:25:00 +0000 All powers exercised under written constitutions, by the very force of the term, written constitution, bear the hall-mark "limited." Every grant connotes a limita- tion; and every constitution is a grant, true when we say that the Constitution of the United States confers only such powers as it expressly or impliedly grants; equally true, when we say technically that our American state governments have in full measure every governmental power not forbidden them in the federal Constitution nor limited by their respective state consti- tutions. So also a limitation was expressed in the saying, "Rus- sia is a despotism tempered by assassination. Autor of the post: Undefined As they have no constitution Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 15:05:26 +0000 " The ultimates of government and of jurisprudence are not very often nor very well discussed by American judges; they have seldom needed to discuss them for one thing; and, perhaps it should be added, a latent cowardice in the greater number of them has not contribu- ted to their competency in that behalf. To estimate properly the true nature and extent of limitations on taxing powers, or on any governmental powers in the United States, one may examine with advantage constitutional limita- tions as existing and understood in Great Britain. As they have no constitution there, in our sense no written instrument call- ed constitution whatever the British Parliament enacts in due form of law is a valid and binding statute within British juris- diction, until amended or repealed. Autor of the post: Undefined Not unfrequently, such maxims Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 14:52:26 +0000 It may be called uncon- stitutional; it cannot be called illegal. Now, as Austin says: 'Tn every, or almost every, independent political society, there are principles or maxims which the sovereign [whether - absolute monarch, governing oligarchy, or broad democracy], habitually observes, and which the bulk of the society, or the bulk of its in- fluential members, regard with feelings of approbation. Not unfrequently, such maxims are expressly adopted, as well as habitually observed, by the sovereign or state, but are simply imposed upon it by opinions prevalent in the community. Autor of the post: Undefined in case it ventured to deviate Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 14:38:37 +0000 Whether they are expressly adopted by the sovereign or state, or are simply imposed upon it by opinions prevalent in the com- munity, it [the sovereign, or state] is bound or constrained to observe them by merely moral sanctions. Or (changing the phrase) .in case it ventured to deviate from a maxim of the kind in question, it would not and could not incur a legal pain or penalty, but it probably would incur censure, and might chance to meet with resistance, from the generality or bulk of the gov- erned. Autor of the post: Undefined For example : The ex Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 14:19:18 +0000 " [That is to say, where there is no written constitution, it is the collective temper, or collective conscience, of the effect- ive majority evidenced by maxims, professions of political faith, judicial decisions and the like, that is the constitution; and practi- cal constitutionality consists in keeping within the limit of what that portion of the people composing or capable of composing an effective majority will stand.] Hence, concludes Austin, "if a law or other act of a monarch or sovereign number conflict with a maxim of the kind to which I have adverted above, the law or other act may be called unconstitutional (in that more gen- eral meaning which is sometimes given to the epithet). For example : The ex post facto statutes which are styled acts of attainder, may be called unconstitutional, though they cannot be called illegal. Autor of the post: Undefined Unless we mean this, we Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 14:01:32 +0000 For they conflict with a principle of legislation which parliament has habitually observed, and which is regarded with approbation by the bulk of the British community. "In short, when we style an act of a sovereign an unconstitu- tional act [in the more general import of the epithet], we mean this : That the act is inconsistent with some given prin- ciple or maxim; that the given supreme government has ex- pressly adopted the principle, or, at least, has habitually ob- served it; that the bulk of the given society, or the bulk of its influential members [that is, its effective majority] regard the principle with approbation; and that, since the supreme govern- ment has habitually observed the principle, and since the bulk of the society regard it with approbation, the act in question must thwart the expectations of the latter, and must shock their opinions and sentiments. Unless we mean this, we merely mean that we deem the act in question generally pernicious; or that, without a definite reason for the disapprobation which we feel, we regard the act with dislike. Autor of the post: Undefined "Now," continues Austin, "against Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 13:50:23 +0000 " After the foregoing-quoted considerations on "unconstitu- tional" in its more general sense, Austin passes to the scrutiny of its "more special and definite" meaning, when the use of the word "imports that the conduct in question conflicts with consti- tutional law." And by the expression constitutional law Austin means "the positive morality or the compound of positive moral- ity and positive law, which fixes the constitution or structure of the given supreme government, the positive mor- ality, or the compound of positive morality and positive law, which determines the character of the person or the respective characters of the persons, in whom, for the time being, the sovereignty shall reside; and, supposing the government in ques- tion an autocracy or government of a number [the positive mor- ality, or the compound of positive morality and positive law], which determines moreover the mode wherein the sovereign pow- ers shall be shared by the constituent members of the sovereign number or body. "Now," continues Austin, "against a monarch properly so- called, or against a sovereign body in its collegiate and sovereign capacity [and the people in their collegiate and sovereign ca- pacity are a sovereign body] constitutional law is positive, mor- ality merely, or is' enforced merely by moral sanctions: though, as I shall show hereafter, it may amount to positive law, or may be enforced by legal sanctions, against the members of the body considered severally. Autor of the post: Undefined In other words governing bodies Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 13:38:44 +0000 [The positive law that may be enforced by legal sanctions, such as impeachment, removal from office, indictment for malfeasance, and the like, against the members of the sovereign body considered severally, applies only to the occasional officer or other active member of the governing body who may commit a breach of constitutional law. Where the different departments of the government aid, abet and sustain each other in such breach, then, as well under our written, as un- der British unwritten, constitutions, there is legality hand in glove with unconstitutionally. In other words governing bodies ' rnpv with legal impunity transcend written or unwritten consti- tutional limitations. Autor of the post: Undefined But whethef constitutional law Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 13:28:19 +0000 We are entirely familiar with the fact and the principle that no penalty attaches to congress or to state legislatures for passing unconstitutional measures; we need ex- tend the principle, or rather follow it, a little further to see how impregnable is Austin's position, and with what slight changes in wording it applies as well to our governments as to that of Great Britain.] The sovereign for the time being, or the pred- ecessors of the sovereign, may have expressly adopted, and ex- pressly promised to observe it [constitutional law] . But whethef constitutional law has thus been expressly adopted [prescribed in written constitutions], or simply consists of principles current in the political community, it is merely guarded, against the sov- ereign, by sentiments or feelings of the governed. Autor of the post: Undefined The power of a sovereign Post Date: Fri, 8 Aug 2008 13:17:53 +0000 Consequent- ly, although an act of the sovereign which violates constitutional law, may be styled with propriety unconstitutional, it is not an infringement of law simply 'and strictly so-called, and cannot be styled with propriety illegal." JOHN AUSTIN, Lectures on Jurisprudence,. The power of a sovereign, then, "is incapable of legal limita- tion," as Austin justly says, meaning "by a 'sovereign. 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