Menu History Laws |
He could not admit Post Date: Sun, 10 Aug 2008 0:54:20 +0000 The doctor, then, defines in effect and correctly an actual tax as a burden imposed by public authority, and in practice falling in its immediate payment upon a part only of the community. His adding "for benefit of the whole" is a conclusion of moral obligation which governments willingly admit on the lip and disregard in the ledger. He could not admit that some taxes, or some parts of some taxes, are laid for robbery, for that would encourage, if not justify, seditious thought ; but in describing the purpose of a tax as being for the "benefit of the whole," Johnson is broad enough to cover nicely the old taxation for reform laid by the Romans on bachelors to encourage marriage, and broad enough to cover also the modern instances of taxation for reform. Autor of the post: Undefined Strictly speaking, the Johnsonian notion Post Date: Sun, 10 Aug 2008 0:43:49 +0000 His definition is broad enough, too, for the inclusion of confiscation by taxation ; it is plain that if authority exacts "from part of the community for the benefit of the whole" the entire property of such part, consisting, let us suppose, of railroads, waterworks, mines and the like, such ex- action does not go beyond taxation in the Johnsonian sense of the word. To say that a tax is a payment "exacted by authority" is strictly proper, since such payment is not voluntary in any fair sense of the word, but is made under expectation that the full power of government will, in case of default, be used to enforce it. Strictly speaking, the Johnsonian notion of taxation is not broad enough to cover those cases where, in the name of a tax, an impost or excise of such magnitude is imposed, that no collec- tions from it are expected, but rather prohibition of the importa- tion or home manufacture and sale of the article or articles so "taxed. Autor of the post: Undefined " Subject to such limita- tions Post Date: Sun, 10 Aug 2008 0:29:24 +0000 But since for special reason or by special fluke, govern- ment seldom indeed fails to get at least a little money from the operation of a prohibitory tax law, that little, by stress and strain, just contrives to bend its law and itself into literal conformity with Johnson's notion of taxation and tax. There are some eco- nomists and some other tariff-reformers, who would like to add to Johnson's definition of tax the proviso, "But protective tariff taxes are payments exacted by authority from the whole of the community for the benefit of a part." Subject to such limita- tions as those above stated or hinted, Johnson's statement of the right of taxation with the infolded definition of tax, and his express definition of tax, are very good and complete much more so in fact than most of the statements and definitions in such kind by other writers. Autor of the post: Undefined The spirit of the Johnsonian definition Post Date: Sun, 10 Aug 2008 0:09:34 +0000 I would restate the right and define the tax, as follows : "The supreme power of "every community [consisting of the effective majority therein] has the right of requiring from all of its subjects [indeed from all of its inhabi- tants], such contributions [commonly called taxes] as are [in the judgment of such effective majority] necessary to public safely or public prosperity. [Said right, and the amount, apportionment, and use of such contributions, or taxes, are limited only by the amount of property in the community and by such customary or written law as may be held bind- ing on itself by such effective majority, right, amount, ap- portionment, and use being subject only to such violent or other changes as may occur in shifting the centre of such effective ma- jority, or in the shifting of its views without marked change of centre.The spirit of the Johnsonian definition, both as given by him and amplified by me is that no tax-law can be unjust. Autor of the post: Undefined His meaning is obviously Post Date: Sat, 9 Aug 2008 23:58:33 +0000 This is quite true, but only in the sense in which it is affirmed by Hobbes in his masterly treatises on government, that "no law can be un- just," a proposition which, as Austin says, "has been deemed by many an unusual or pernicious paradox." Austin, speaking further of Hobbes's proposition, adds : "If we look at the scope of the treatises in which it occurs, or even at the passages by which it is immediately followed, we shall find that the proposi- tion is neither pernicious nor paradoxical, but is merely a truism put in unguarded terms. His meaning is obviously this : that 'no positive law is legally unjust. Autor of the post: Undefined ] Lectures on Jurisprudence (London, 1885) Post Date: Sat, 9 Aug 2008 23:44:50 +0000 ' And the decried proposition, as thus understood, is indisputably true. For positive law is the measure or test of legal justice and injustice; and, consequently, if positive law might be legally unjust positive law might be unjust as^ measured or tried by itself" [which would be in effect the suicide of the law.] Lectures on Jurisprudence (London, 1885), I 268. Autor of the post: Undefined If they cause rebellion Post Date: Sat, 9 Aug 2008 23:28:44 +0000 A law may be inopportune, or un- wise, mischievous in its direct effect, and collaterally in- jurious to morals; but it cannot in the case above explained be "unjust.Laws may be so inefficient or positively mischievous as to invite to revolution and the overthrow of the government that makes them; still they are not technically unjust. If they cause rebellion and successful revolution, a new order of rights and technical justice will be established by the new (or shifted) effective majority, and such new order in turn will embody itself in laws which cannot be "unjust. Autor of the post: Undefined I now cite and examine Post Date: Sat, 9 Aug 2008 23:18:13 +0000 " Success in rebellion and rev- olution makes the patriot ; want of success, the traitor. In a con- tented and law-abiding nation the enacting of new laws and the repealing or amending of the old suppress those abuses which might otherwise be lopped off by the sword of rebellion. I now cite and examine a cluster of French definitions. Autor of the post: Undefined Littre, the great lexicographer Post Date: Sat, 9 Aug 2008 22:59:38 +0000 The dictionary of the French Academy defines tax as a "public charge, a right (dr'oit) imposed on certain things." This, like most dic- tionary definitions is very vague and non-committal. Littre, the great lexicographer, in his monumental dictionary of the French fanguage, defines tax first in the meaning of the word according to its first stage in modern evolution : "A name given formerly only to the transitory and occasional levies of rates which the government imposed for the needs of the state. Autor of the post: Undefined " Mirabeau's definition : "Taxes Post Date: Sat, 9 Aug 2008 22:49:02 +0000 " Taxes in the be- ginnings from which modern Europe has been evolved were at first only occasional, not, as now, annual and perpetual ; revenues from crown lands, the public domain, so to speak, of king or other potentate, were thought sufficient for ordinary public ex- penditures. Littre adopts in second place the above definition of the Academy; and quotes from Raynal this further definition of tax : "A contribution for the public expense, which is necessary to the preservation of private property." Mirabeau's definition : "Taxes are but advances (made by taxpayers), to obtain the pro- tection of the courts and police. 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